Education Of The Middle Ages Essay -- essays research papers

Training of the medieval times Training, as we probably am aware it today, didn't exist in the Middle Ages. Ignorance was predominant among the populace. Copyists were the special case to the standard. Places of worship were the fundamental wellspring of information and tutoring. Genuine enthusiasm for learning developed alongside the advancement of towns. The towns’ authorities should have been taught. Simultaneously a requirement for legitimate organizations was made thus began the college marvel. Present day instruction was on its way. There were scarcely any schools in the Middle ages, so everybody had restricted instruction. Indeed, even the Lord of the Manor was regularly unfit to peruse or compose. A portion of the principal schools were Cathedral schools. Just as Parish, Monastic, and Palace schools. Here individuals took in a specific job in the public arena. Normally the essential occupation was preparing the church in their expert obligations as clerics of the Christian individuals. The minister was the leader of the complex and he had a staff of cleric to assist him with the few of the ward. These abilities that were educated here were perusing, singing of songs, church law, composing of archives and the performing of Church obligations and holy observances. A case of instructing for a particular job in life were the Knights who had figure out how to battle with different weapons so they could battle for their lord.      The ordinary citizens, nonetheless, had no chance to get of being taught oth er than going a religious school. Be that as it may, on the off chance that they did this, they needed to give their property to the congregation. The individuals who went to this school later become priests or nuns. They needed to adhere to three significant laws: celibacy, dutifulness, and the law or the ruler if not tailed they would be tossed out of the religious community. Most religious communities had a standard of quietness: priests couldn't talk which other aside from a brief timeframe. During dinners one priest may peruse entries from the good book while the others intervened. Despite the fact that monks’ lives appear to be so difficult it was the best spot to go for decent training for anyone from a ruler to a homeless person (Monasteries 488-499).      Women participated in devout life by living in a cloister under a heading of an abbess. Known as nuns, they wore basic garments and wrapped a white material called a wimple around their face and neck. They substituted supplication with turning, weaving, and entangling things, for example, embroidered works of art and pennants. They... ...ssance 220). The development of the print machine in the mid-fifteenth century made books all the more generally accessible and expanded education rates. Be that as it may, school participation didn't increment extraordinarily during the Renaissance. Grade schools instructed white collar class youngsters while lower-class kids got close to nothing, assuming any, formal tutoring. Offspring of the respectability and privileged societies went to humanist optional schools (Bailey 112). Instructive open doors for ladies improved somewhat during the Renaissance, particularly for the privileged societies. A few young ladies from rich families went to schools of the illustrious court or got private exercises at home. The educational plan concentrated by young ladies was as yet dependent on the conviction that lone certain subjects, for example, craftsmanship, music, embroidery, moving, and verse, were appropriate for females. For common laborers young ladies, particularly country workers, instruction was as yet restricted to preparing in family unit obligations, for example, cooking and sewing (Couglin, A8). As it demonstrates training the Middle Ages is by all accounts so differing and a beginning stage for present day instruction. However, the peruser should consistently remember just around five percent of the entire populace did these instructive exercises. Instruction Of The Middle Ages Essay - papers research papers Instruction of the medieval times Instruction, as we probably am aware it today, didn't exist in the Middle Ages. Absence of education was predominant among the populace. Copyists were the special case to the standard. Chapels were the fundamental wellspring of information and tutoring. Genuine enthusiasm for learning developed alongside the improvement of towns. The towns’ authorities should have been taught. Simultaneously a requirement for lawful foundations was made thus began the college wonder. Current instruction was on its way. There were scarcely any schools in the Middle ages, so everybody had constrained training. Indeed, even the Lord of the Manor was regularly unfit to peruse or compose. A portion of the primary schools were Cathedral schools. Just as Parish, Monastic, and Palace schools. Here individuals took in a specific job in the public eye. Normally the essential occupation was preparing the church in their expert obligations as ministers of the Christian individuals. The priest was the leader of the complex and he had a staff of cleric to assist him with the few of the ward. These abilities that were instructed here were perusing, singing of songs, church law, composing of records and the performing of Church obligations and holy observances. A case of teaching for a particular job in life were the Knights who had figure out how to battle with different weapons so they could battle for their lord.      The ordinary citizens, be that as it may, had no chance to get of being taught other than going an ascetic school. Be that as it may, on the off chance that they did this, they needed to give their property to the congregation. The individuals who went to this school later become priests or nuns. They needed to observe three significant laws: modesty, dutifulness, and the law or the ruler if not tailed they would be tossed out of the religious community. Most religious communities had a standard of quiet: priests couldn't talk which other with the exception of a brief timeframe. During dinners one priest may peruse entries from the book of scriptures while the others intervened. Despite the fact that monks’ lives appear to be so difficult it was the best spot to go for decent training for anyone from a ruler to a poor person (Monasteries 488-499).      Women partook in religious life by living in a community under a bearing of an abbess. Known as nuns, they wore basic garments and wrapped a white material called a wimple around their face and neck. They rotated petition with turning, weaving, and entangling things, for example, embroideries and standards. They... ...ssance 220). The innovation of the print machine in the mid-fifteenth century made books all the more generally accessible and expanded education rates. Yet, school participation didn't increment incredibly during the Renaissance. Primary schools taught white collar class kids while lower-class youngsters got pretty much nothing, assuming any, formal tutoring. Offspring of the respectability and high societies went to humanist optional schools (Bailey 112). Instructive open doors for ladies improved somewhat during the Renaissance, particularly for the high societies. A few young ladies from well off families went to schools of the imperial court or got private exercises at home. The educational plan concentrated by young ladies was as yet dependent on the conviction that solitary certain subjects, for example, craftsmanship, music, embroidery, moving, and verse, were appropriate for females. For common laborers young ladies, particularly country workers, instruction was as yet restricted to preparing in family obligations, for example, cooking and sewing (Couglin, A8). As it demonstrates instruction the Middle Ages is by all accounts so various and a beginning stage for current training. Yet, the peruser should consistently remember just around five percent of the entire populace did these instructive exercises.

Narrative Essays For College - How to Write a Narrative Essay

Narrative Essays For College - How to Write a Narrative EssayBy looking into the type of writing you are used to, writing narrative essays for college can be a little harder. Most people will write non-fiction essay on their own. You will have to decide if you want to create your own topic and then plan it in order to come up with a short paper that you can actually turn in.For college students that are focused on writing an essay, they might have a lot of trouble if they take a step back and try to create their own topic. They do not know what the standard format is for their class. If they are already in their first year, they will have a lot of different topics to choose from to research.There is no standard format for creating narrative essays for college. The only way to do this is by studying your teacher and choosing topics based on their material. Sometimes, they will guide you with how to create a narrative from the given information. In other cases, they might require you t o follow a particular order.Because there is no standard format for narrative essays for college, the best thing you can do is go with the flow. Try to use what your teacher has taught you to create your narrative. This way, you can get more out of your assignments.When you are creating your writing, you need to consider the level of your student's level. The teacher might have helped them create their topic and now they will teach them how to do the same. If this is the case, the teacher may have explained how to write a thesis statement and included that in your essay.A thesis statement is a way to write the material for your paper. It is similar to the titles that appear in a textbook. You use this to guide you through the writing process, but there is also the option of creating your own thesis statement.Your research skills should also be your priority when it comes to creating a narrative essay for college. To help you with this, there are some great tools that can help you cr eate research for your essays. They are easy to use and can provide you with all the details you need to write well.Proofreading is an important aspect of college writing and will be a component that you should consider when you are editing your essays. There is no substitute for the assistance of a professional proofreader. They can give you insights on what to look for when doing your research and can point out mistakes that you might not see otherwise.

Education System In The Middle East

The open guidance framework in Egypt comprises of three degrees: the essential guidance stage for 4-14 mature ages old: kindergarten for two mature ages followed by grade school for six mature ages and preparative school for three mature ages. At that point, the auxiliary school stage is for three mature ages, for a very long time 15 to 17, trailed by an exhaustive round of questioning. Training is made necessary for 9 scholarly mature ages between the ages of 6 and 14. Besides, all degrees of guidance are free in any specialists count schools. Fitting to the World Bank, there are extraordinary contrasts in instructive fulfillment of the rich and the hapless, other than known as the â€Å" riches spread. † Although the normal mature ages of school finished by the rich and the hapless is just a couple of mature ages yet the riches spread arrives at each piece high as nine or ten mature ages. In the occurrence of Egypt, the riches spread was a humble 3 mature ages in the mid1990 s [ Overall, the composite guidance Index in the MENA Flagship Report: The Road Not Traveled demonstrated promising results of Egypt ‘s similar instructive achievements. Of the 14 MENA states examined, Egypt accomplished the cosmopolitan essential guidance and has other than decreased the sexual orientation spread at all degrees of heading, however there is as yet an interest to better the nature of guidance. Limited time investigations are held at all degrees with the exception of in classs 3, 6 and 9 at the essential guidance degree and the classs 11 and 12 in the optional stage, which apply normalized provincial or national tests. The Ministry of Education is answerable for doing judgments about the guidance framework with the help of three Centers: the National Center of Curricula Development, the National Center for Education Research, and the National Center for Examinations and Educational Evaluation. Each middle has its ain point of convergence in explaining guidance strategies with other territory degree committees.On the different manus, the Ministry of Higher Education administers the higher guidance framework. There is other than a proper teacher ‘s making way in topographic point for essential and optional guidance degrees. The teachers are required to complete four mature ages of pre-administration classs at college to come in the guidance calling. Explicitly as to instructor ‘s proficient improvement to raise science, logical order and building guidance rules, the Professional Academy for Teachers offer a few plans. Neighborhood educators other than take partition in the worldwide expert readiness plans. Get bringing down in 2007, the Ministries of Education, Finance, and Local Development ( and others ) began casual medications to explore different avenues regarding the decentalisation of guidance. Working gatherings were built up to accomplish increasingly formal recommendations. Proposition included contemplations for get bringing down with repetitive outgos, using a basic and crystalline articulation for moving out money related transportations, and doing sure that transportations would make the school itself. During 2008 structure was completed, three pilot governorates ( Faiyum, Ismailia, and Luxor ) were picked, and observing and limit building methods and manuals were settled upon. The articulation is fairly basic, and incorporates enrollment, need, and period of guidance as drivers. During 2009 help was decentralized all the way to the school degree, and schools started to have support. Starting late 2009, the pilot indicated hardly any occupations, and the normal results were going on fairly great, in footings of energizing network commitment, leting schools to pass all the more speedily and measure their ain priorities, and expanding the sincerity of school-based arranging by making an organization to back such projects, among other anticipated outcomes. A casual examination of the pilot uncovered that the help articulation cash encouraged an expansion in network commitments. The investigation outcomes show that the proportion of the normal estimations of network commitments of the pilot twelvemonth to the old twelvemonth was 2.20. Corresponding to these endeavors in the guidance part, different divisions ( for delineation, certain features of housing and metropolitan administrations ) in Egypt are be aftering to deconcentrate dynamic and payment, presently ac ross the nation ( without a pilot stage in restricted governorates ) , in a staged assault. Training projects to be one of the lead segments in this strategy. In add-on to authoritative and monetary decentalisation, there is an expanding accent on influencing chose neighborhood well known gatherings ( which exist at governorate and domain degree ) in the flat incident of outgo and arranging over the decentralizing parts, out of this world on conduit in the decentalisation strategy. Inside the guidance segment, starting late 2009 projects are being made to deconcentrate certain lines of help and getting ready for capital gear and foundation, in all governorates, all the way to class degree in the example of littler units of capital hardware, or degrees higher than the school for focuses, for example, new base. The guidance segment anticipates to proceed to use the first 3 pilot governorates as a specific observatory to gauge and see how great the method is continui Government SchoolsBy and enormous talking, there are two kinds of specialists schools: Arabic Schools and Experimental Language Schools.Arabic Schools, give the administrative national course of study in the Arabic Language. A legislative English etymological correspondence course of study is instructed get bringing down from the outset Primary twelvemonth and French is included as a second remote semantic correspondence in Secondary Education. Test Language Schools, show the majority of the specialists course of study ( Science, Mathematics and Computer ) in English, and includes Gallic as a second remote etymological correspondence in Preparatory Education. An Advanced English etymological correspondence course of study is given in every Educational stage. Social Studies are instructed in Arabic. Understudies are conceded into top notch at age seven ; a twelvemonth more seasoned than Arabic schools. Non-public schools All around talking, there are four kinds of non-public schools: Customary schools, their course of study is fairly like that of the specialists schools, yet the tuition based schools pay all the more taking care of the students ‘ individual requests and to the school establishments. Language schools, show the vast majority of the specialists course of study in English, and include Gallic or German as a second outside etymological correspondence. They are required to be superior to different schools, in view of the establishments accessible, however their charges are a lot higher. A portion of these schools utilize Gallic or German as their boss phonetic correspondence of heading, yet it might be difficult for the student to examine in administrative colleges in Arabic or English along these lines. Strict Schools, are sacredly situated schools as Azhar schools or Catholic schools. Global Schools, are non-public schools that follow another state ‘s course of study, similar to a British, American, or Gallic framework, and the evaluations earned from them secure authority emancipation from the Ministry of Education, to be qualified to record in Egyptian colleges, such schools offer far and away superior establishments and A ; exercises than customary non-public schools with higher expenses, yet are condemned to gracefully an a lot simpler guidance degree contrasted with the general course of study, and some Egyptian colleges require higher classs than those of standard schools students as a lower limit for enrollment, or an abundance secondary school accreditation like SAT Many of the non-public schools were worked by evangelists, are by and by subsidiary with holy places and give quality guidance. Numerous tuition based schools offer extra instructive plans, alongside the national course of study, for example, the American High School Diploma, the British IGCSE framework, the Gallic baccalaureat, the German Abitur and the International Baccalaureate. These are the kinds of tuition based schools in Egypt. Fundamental Education The fundamental guidance comprises of pre-essential, essential and preparative degrees of guidance. In Egypt, the Ministry of Education organizes the preschool guidance. In 1999-2000 the whole enrollment pace of pre-essential students was 16 for each centum and that expanded to 24 for each centum in 2009. Independent of private or territory count, all preschool foundations go under Ministry of Education. It is the Ministry ‘s obligation to pick and oversee content releases. Fitting to the Ministry ‘s rules, the maximal size of a preschool ought to non rise above in excess of 45 students. Service of Education is other than obtaining support from the universal departments, for example, the World Bank to elevate the youth guidance framework by expanding dish to schools, bettering nature of guidance and structure limit of teachers At the essential degree understudies could go to private, otherworldly or specialists schools. Directly, there are 7.8 per centum of understudies e nlisted at essential degree in tuition based schools as of 2007.The whole enrollment of students at essential degree is 105 for every centum in 2007. The examinations at class 3 are on an area ( edara ) level The second grade of essential necessary guidance is the preparative stage or lower auxiliary which is three mature ages long. Fruition of this evaluation awards students the Basic Education Completion Certificate. The significance of finishing of this level of guidance is to defend understudies against absence of education as early dab outs at this stage simple subside into lack of education lastly need. Optional guidance comprises of three ways: general, professional/specialized and the dualsystem professional guidance which spoke to I Mubarak Kohl schools. The general auxiliary stage incorporates 3 mature ages of instructi

Citizenship and the Pursuit of Truth - Free Essay Example

The question of truth and reasoning with respect to good citizenship has long been the topic of philosophical debate. Ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato pondered the question of truth and ethics. The questioning persisted as modern philosophers continued to define our role as human beings in determining truth and applying that truth to our own ethical behavior. In W.K. Cliffords essay The Ethics of Belief, he argues that it is our responsibility to seek the truth through evidential support. Cliffords theory is that without evidence one can not truly make ethical decisions; thus, one can not be an ethical citizen without knowing the truth through substantiated evidence. The question of the importance of truth and evidence in relation to our own ethics and citizenship continues to be a significant topic today. Are we, as Americans living in a democracy, required to always seek and know the truth based on evidentiary support? Or, do we as citizens have the right to form our opinions based on logic and reasoning without hard facts to support our beliefs? In answering these two questions, one can pursue her own definition of ethical citizenship. According to W.K. Clifford, before one can have ethical beliefs, it is essential that information must be based in fact. He proposes that for one to make ethical decisions, she must not include personal opinion or change the facts to match her own desires. Clifford states, It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone to believe anything on insufficient evidence (Chignell). Cliffords theory is strongly evidentialist. He believed that citizens are obligated to seek evidence, be open to the new evidence, and take others evidence into careful consideration (Chignell). In Cliffords essay, he uses the story of a shipowner who knows that his ship is rickety, but he decides to let people travel on a transatlantic voyage anyway. The ship sinks and passengers die. Clifford proposes that the shipowner is responsible for the deaths because he knew all along that the ship might be unsafe. Clifford goes on to state that the owner would still be guilty of unethical decision making even if the ship had safely landed and passengers were unharmed. He states that positive outcomes do not negate poor decisions (Chignell). Cliffords theory is in line with the Philosophical Model for Reflective Deliberation. The shipowner failed to rationally evaluate and deliberate before committing to sending the people on their unsuccessful voyage. If we as citizens follow the Philosophical Model and Cliffords theory, it becomes our responsibility to always seek sufficient, truthful evidence to guide our behaviors and beliefs. In a democracy, the pursuit of truth is necessary in keeping the citizens of the republic safe and secure. In the United States, we entrust our political leaders with our lives. The elected officials take on the responsibility of behaving in an ethical decision-making process. Unfortunately, in todays United States, it seems facts and evidential reasoning is far from the norm. For example, in our current political climate, both the liberal and conservative communities are guilty of ignoring factual evidence if it does not match with their preconceived notions or political motives. Self-deception seems to be prevalent in the United States today. Voters and elected officials tend to ignore evidence and choose to find good in something just because they want to. One current hot topic is the debate over illegal immigration and what the United States should do in order to serve its citizens properly. Both the liberal and conservative leaders are guilty of developing solutions that are no t necessarily supported by factual evidence, but rather they base their decisions and solutions on emotional grounds that do not prove anything about how a solution can truly be created. On the far left side of the immigration issue, sanctuary cities are being created. The leaders creating these safe havens are ignoring federal law and refuse to examine the issue for factual evidence as to why the illegal immigrants should be protected. These leaders believe they are behaving in a virtuous manner. While virtue is the desire to have good things, is protecting illegal immigrants from deportation actually the right or virtuous thing to do? Is there factual evidence to support that this is the best public policy for a democracy, to protect everyone? Or is the sanctuary city stance actually a flawed concept based on the sincerity of the belief without thought to the consequences of the belief? Just like the shipowner in Cliffords essay, the leaders of sanctuary cities are following what they think is probably the best solution, but ignoring the fact that keeping certain illegal immigrants in the country might actually bring harm. On the other hand, the conservative leadership in our country is just as guilty of ignoring factual evidence and basing decisions on false premises with no evidential support. In the illegal immigration debate, it is the popular belief of those on the far right that a wall should be built on the southern border. Is there any factual evidence to support this idea? Leaders talk of specific gang and drug-related crimes that have been committed in the United States by illegal aliens. However, there is no factual evidence or research to prove that building a wall would actually stop the flow of illegal immigrants into the United States. Furthermore, would the wall really prevent crime? Leaders are using emotions and appealing to the fears of their constituents rather than basing the public policy decisions on research, data, or factual evidence. This means that while the pursuit of truth and ethical behavior should be the ultimate goals for those in charge of our public policy, truth is n ot the goal. Ultimately, this may have a negative impact on our democracy because the general public will lose faith in the ability for leaders on either side of the spectrum to make true and just decisions for the good of all people. Another threat to the pursuit of truth in our democratic society is the explosion of false information through the New Media. The speed at which false information can be shared is alarming. Additionally, information seekers tend to believe what they want to believe without ever checking for evidence or facts. It is as if we as a society are now basing our facts on gossip and hearsay rather than anything of substance. This sort of threat to democracy was evident in the ancient trial of Socrates. The mob mentality that led to his conviction is similar to the type of mob mentality we see each day through social media outlets. Once again, both sides of the political spectrum are guilty of this mob-style social injustice. Unsubstantiated claims are not examined but rather become truth simply because a story travels quickly through social media outlets or even the mainstream news media. For example, no one could logically argue that the ideals of the popular Me Too Movement are unjust. Cer tainly, anyone guilty of sexual harassment should face punishment. However, the new trend is to convict someone in the public eye whether there is factual evidence to warrant the conviction. Because of the mob-style mentality of the movement and its popularity, the pursuit of truth is ignored and quick conviction without ethical proof is many times the outcome. News outlets are so quick to release a story or be the first with the big exclusive that they overlook evidence or ignore facts that do not promote the agenda. Truthfulness in the media has always been of utmost importance in a democratic society. When media outlets fail to seek truth and evidence, it is at the expense of the democracy and its future. Failing to seek the truth and make ethical decisions can prove to be detrimental to democracy. In communist countries citizens are forced to believe based on unsubstantiated claims and evidence. The evidence is hidden from the members of society. In a democracy, it is supposed to be different. The people are supposed to rule. How can a society truly call themselves a democracy if the people do not have all the facts and base beliefs on something other than truth? Members of the democratic society can change the current path by holding our institutions of learning and information to a high standard. In the field of education, instructors should be responsible to teach all sides of an issue and let students base opinions on facts rather than emotional appeals. History should not be rewritten to fit the norms of todays society. Only the facts will help people to learn from past mistakes. The media should also be held accountable for a decline in truth and ethical behavior. Recent improvements have been made in stricter guidelines for privacy for social media users. Also, Facebook has faced backlash for allowing fake news accounts that are believed to have tainted the last Presidential election. However, while these are steps in the right direction toward a more truthful medium, social media users need to become more proactive in seeking truth while using social media rather than just accepting stories at face value. In order for our government to be more in line with Cliffords Ethics of Belief, our leaders must change the current course. The political parties are so focused on devaluing the ideas of their foes that they are unwilling to consider truth and evidence. The current condition of our politics is divisive and derogatory. Since the United States is a representative democracy, the people will have to decide to evaluate information, seek truth based on evidence, not hearsay, and elect those who most often follow the will of the people. The voters should seek to elect candidates that demonstrate a true desire to try to behave in a fact-based, ethical manner that is not purely based on party politics. According to Clifford, there are three principles that are always unethical: to believe on insufficient evidence, to suppress doubt, and to avoid investigation. Our schools, our social and news media outlets, and our government have a responsibility to the citizens of the democracy to allow people to question, seek factual evidence, and investigate situations in order to find real truth. In order for the democracy to stand, its people must be willing to base beliefs on fact. It is the responsibility of good citizens to seek truth.

Logical Fallacies Appeal to Authority

Fallacious appeals to authority take the general form of: 1. Person (or people) P makes claim X. Therefore, X is true. A fundamental reason why the Appeal to Authority can be a fallacy is that a proposition can be well supported only by facts and logically valid inferences. But by using an authority, the argument is relying upon testimony, not facts. A testimony is not an argument and it is not a fact. Now, such testimony might be strong or it might be weak the better the authority, the stronger the testimony will be and the worse the authority, the weaker the testimony will be. Thus, the way to differentiate between a legitimate and a fallacious appeal to authority is by evaluating the nature and strength of who is giving the testimony. Obviously, the best way to avoid making the fallacy is to avoid relying upon testimony as much as possible, and instead to rely upon original facts and data. But the truth of the matter is, this isnt always possible: we cant verify every single thing ourselves, and thus will always have to make use of the testimony of experts. Nevertheless, we must do so carefully and judiciously. The different types of the Appeal to Authority are: Legitimate Appeal to AuthorityAppeal to Unqualified AuthorityAppeal to Anonymous AuthorityAppeal to NumbersAppeal to Tradition  « Logical Fallacies | Legitimate Appeal to Authority  » Fallacy Name:Legitimate Appeal to Authority Alternative Names:None Category:Fallacy of Relevance Appeals to Authority Explanation:Not every reliance upon the testimony of authority figures is fallacious. We often rely upon such testimony, and we can do so for very good reason. Their talent, training and experience put them in a position to evaluate and report on evidence not readily available to everyone else. But we must keep in mind that for such an appeal to be justified, certain standards must be met: 1. The authority is an expert in the area of knowledge under consideration.2. The statement of the authority concerns his or her area of mastery.3. There is agreement among experts in the area of knowledge under consideration. Examples and Discussion:Let’s take a look at this example: 4. My doctor has said that medicine X will help my medical condition. Therefore, it will help me with my medical condition. Is this a legitimate appeal to authority, or a fallacious appeal to authority? First, the doctor has to be a medical doctor — a doctor of philosophy simply won’t do. Second, the doctor has to be treating you for a condition in which she has training — it isn’t enough if the doctor is a dermatologist who is prescribing you something for lung cancer. Finally, there has to be some general agreement among other experts in this field — if your doctor is the only one using this treatment, then the premise does not support the conclusion. Of course, we must keep in mind that even if these conditions are fully met, that does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. We are looking at inductive arguments here, and inductive arguments do not have guaranteed true conclusions, even when the premises are true. Instead, we have conclusions which are probably true. An important issue to consider here how and why anyone might be called an â€Å"expert† in some field. It isn’t enough to simply note that an appeal to authority is not a fallacy when that authority is an expert, because we need to have some way to tell when and how we have a legitimate an expert, or when we just have a fallacy. Let’s look at another example: 5. Channeling the spirits of the dead is real, because John Edward says he can do it and he is an expert. Now, is the above a legitimate appeal to authority, or a fallacious appeal to authority? The answer rests with whether or not it is true that we can call Edward an expert on channeling the spirits of the dead. Let’s do a comparison of the following two examples to see if that helps: 6. Professor Smith, shark expert: Great White Sharks are dangerous.7. John Edward: I can channel the spirit of your dead grandmother. When it comes to the authority of Professor Smith, it isn’t so hard to accept that he might be an authority on sharks. Why? Because the topic that he is an expert on involves empirical phenomena; and more importantly, it is possible for us to check on what he has claimed and verify it for ourselves. Such verification might be time consuming (and, when it comes to sharks, perhaps dangerous!), but that is usually why an appeal to authority is made in the first place. But when it comes to Edward, the same things cannot really be said. We simply do not have the usual tools and methods available to us to verify that he is, indeed, channeling someone’s dead grandmother and thereby getting information from her. Since we have no idea how his claim might be verified, even in theory, it simply isn’t possible to conclude that he is an expert on the subject. Now, that does not mean that there cannot be experts or authorities on the behavior of people who claim to channel the spirits of the dead, or experts on the social phenomena surrounding belief in channeling. This is because the claims made by these so-called experts can be verified and evaluated independently. By the same token, a person might be an expert on theological arguments and the history of theology, but to call them an expert on â€Å"god† would just be begging the question.  « Appeal to Authority — Overview | Appeal to Unqualified Authority  » Name:Appeal to Unqualified Authority Alternative Names:Argumentum ad Verecundiam Category:Fallacies of Relevance Appeals to Authority Explanation:An appeal to an Unqualified Authority looks much like a legitimate appeal to authority, but it violates at least one of the three necessary conditions for such an appeal to be legitimate: 1. The authority is an expert in the area of knowledge under consideration.2. The statement of the authority concerns his or her area of mastery.3. There is agreement among experts in the area of knowledge under consideration. People don’t always bother to think about whether these standards have been met. One reason is that most learn to defer to authorities and are reluctant to challenge them — this is the source of the Latin name for this fallacy, Argumentum ad Verecundiam, which means â€Å"argument appealing to our sense of modesty.† It was coined by John Locke to communicate how people are browbeaten by such arguments into accepting a proposition by the testimony of an authority because they are too modest to base a challenge on their own knowledge. Authorities can be challenged and the place to start is by questioning whether or not the above criteria have been met. To begin with, you can question whether or not the alleged authority really is an authority in this area of knowledge. It isn’t uncommon for people to set themselves up as authorities when they don’t merit such a label. For example, expertise in the fields of science and medicine require many years of study and practical work, but some who claim to have similar expertise by more obscure methods, like self-study. With that, they might claim the authority to challenge everyone else; but even if it turns out that their radical ideas are right, until that is proven, references to their testimony would be a fallacious. Examples and Discussion:An all-too-common example of this is movie stars testifying on important matters before Congress: 4. My favorite actor, who appeared in a movie about AIDS, has testified that the HIV virus doesn’t really cause AIDS and that there has been a cover-up. So, I think that AIDS must be caused by something other than HIV and the drug companies are hiding it so that they can make money from expensive anti-HIV drugs. Although there is little evidence to support the idea, perhaps it is true that AIDS is not caused by HIV; but that is really beside the point. The above argument bases the conclusion on the testimony on an actor, apparently because they appeared in a movie on the topic. This example might seem fanciful but many actors have testified before Congress based on the strength of their movie roles or pet charities. This doesn’t make them any more of an authority on such topics than you or I. They certainly can’t claim the medical and biological expertise to make authoritative testimony on the nature of AIDS. So just why is it that actors are invited to testify before Congress on topics other than acting or art? A second basis for challenge is whether or not the authority in question is making statements in his or her area of expertise. Sometimes, it is obvious when that is not happening. The above example with actors would be a good one - we might accept such a person as an expert on acting or how Hollywood works, but that doesn’t mean they know anything about medicine. There are many examples of this in advertising — indeed, just about every bit of advertising which uses some sort of celebrity is making a subtle (or not-so-subtle) appeal to unqualified authority. Just because someone is a famous baseball player doesn’t make them qualified to say which mortgage company is best, for instance. Often the difference can be much more subtle, with an authority in a related field making statements about an area of knowledge close to their own, but not quite close enough to warrant calling them an expert. So, for example, a dermatologist might be an expert when it comes to skin disease, but that doesn’t mean that they should be accepted as also being an expert when it comes to lung cancer. Finally, we can challenge an appeal to authority based on whether or not the testimony being offered is something which would find widespread agreement among other experts in that field. After all, if this is the only person in the entire field making such claims, the mere fact that they have expertise doesn’t warrant belief in it, especially considering the weight of contrary testimony. There are entire fields, in fact, where there is widespread disagreement on just about everything — psychiatry and economics are good examples of this. When an economist testifies to something, we can be almost guaranteed that we could find other economists to argue differently. Thus, we cannot rely upon them and should look directly at the evidence they are offering.  « Legitimate Appeal to Authority | Appeal to Anonymous Authority  » Fallacy Name:Appeal to Anonymous Authority Alternative Names:HearsayAppeal to Rumor Category:Fallacy of Weak Induction Appeals to Authority Explanation:This fallacy occurs whenever a person claims we should believe a proposition because it is also believed or claimed by some authority figure or figures — but in this case the authority is not named. Instead of identifying who this authority is, we get vague statements about â€Å"experts† or â€Å"scientists† who have â€Å"proven† something to be â€Å"true.† This is a fallacious Appeal to Authority because a valid authority is one who can be checked and whose statements can be verified. An anonymous authority however, cannot be checked and their statements cannot be verified. Examples and Discussion:We often see the Appeal to Anonymous Authority used in arguments where scientific matters are at question: 1. Scientists have found that eating cooked meat causes cancer.2. Most doctors agree that people in America take too many unnecessary drugs. Either of the above propositions may be true — but the support offered is completely inadequate to the task of supporting them. The testimony of â€Å"scientists† and â€Å"most doctors† is only relevant if we know who these people are and can independently evaluate the data which they have used. Sometimes, the Appeal to Anonymous Authority doesn’t even bother to rely upon genuine authorities like â€Å"scientists† or â€Å"doctors† — instead, all we hear about are unidentified â€Å"experts†: 3. According to government experts, the new nuclear storage facility poses no dangers.4. Environmental experts have demonstrated that global warming does not really exist. Here we don’t even know if the so-called â€Å"experts† are qualified authorities in the fields in question — and that is in addition to not knowing who they are so we can check the data and conclusions. For all we know, they have no genuine expertise and/or experience in these matters and have only been cited because they happen to agree with the speaker’s personal beliefs. Sometimes, the Appeal to Anonymous Authority is combined with an insult: 5. Every open-minded historian will agree that the Bible is relatively historically accurate and that Jesus existed. The authority of â€Å"historians† is used as a basis to argue that the listener should believe both that the Bible is historically accurate and that Jesus existed. Nothing is said about who the â€Å"historians† in question are — as a result, we cannot check for ourselves whether or not these â€Å"historians† have a good basis for their position. The insult comes in via the implication that those who believe the claims are â€Å"open-minded† and, therefore, those who don’t believe aren’t open-minded. No one wants to think of herself as being closed-minded, so an inclination to adopt the position described above is created. In addition, all historians who reject the above are automatically excluded from consideration because they are simply â€Å"closed-minded.† This fallacy can also be used in a personal way: 6. I know a chemist who is an expert in his field, and according to him evolution is nonsense. Who is this chemist? What field is he an expert in? Does his expertise have anything at all to do with a field which relates to evolution? Without that information, his opinion about evolution cannot be regarded as any reason to doubt evolutionary theory. Sometimes, we don’t even get the benefit of an appeal to â€Å"experts†: 7. They say that crime is increasing because of a lax court system. This proposition may be true, but who is this â€Å"they† who says so? We don’t know and we cannot evaluate the claim. This example of the Appeal to Anonymous Authority fallacy is particularly bad because it is so vague and vacuous. The Appeal to Anonymous Authority fallacy is sometimes called an Appeal to Rumor and the above example shows why. When â€Å"they† say things, that is just a rumor — it might be true, or it might not be. We cannot accept it as true, however, without evidence and the testimony of â€Å"they† cannot even begin to qualify. Prevention and Treatment:Avoiding this fallacy can be difficult because we all have heard things that have led to our beliefs, but when called upon to defend those beliefs we can’t find all of those reports to use as evidence. Thus, it is very easy and tempting to simply refer to â€Å"scientists† or â€Å"experts.† This isn’t necessarily a problem — provided, of course, that we are willing to make the effort to find that evidence when asked. We should not expect anyone to believe it just because we have cited the so-called authority of unknown and anonymous figures. We also shouldn’t jump on someone when we see them doing the same. Instead, we should remind them that an anonymous authority isn’t sufficient to get us to believe the claims in question and ask them to provide more substantive support.  « Logical Fallacies | Argument from Authority  »

Catharine MacKinnons Book Feminism Unmodified Essay

Catharine MacKinnons Book Feminism Unmodified Catharine MacKinnon, in her book Feminism Unmodified, takes a unique approach to the problem of gender inequality in America. She claims that pornography defines the way in which America’s patriarchal society perpetuates male dominance, and attacks traditional liberal methods that defend pornography on the basis of the first amendment’s right to free speech. According to MacKinnon, pornography is not an example of speech but rather an act. She proposes that this act discriminates against women as a class, and therefore violates their civil rights and should be outlawed. MacKinnon’s critics may think her argument is excessively radical, and contemporary society may not embrace the†¦show more content†¦Both practices work within the system, but neither practice has made substantial progress because they do not change private practice. MacKinnon opposes both approaches because they abide by male dominance. MacKinnon feels â€Å"There is a politics to (this dominant approach). Concealed is the substantive way in which man has become the measure for all things† (34). â€Å"Under the sameness (approach) women are measured according to their correspondence with man,† while â€Å"under the difference approach women are judged according to their distance to man.† She feels that male power perpetuates male dominance, because â€Å"women and men are equally different, but not equally powerful† (51). MacKinnon argues that pornography defines male treatment of women, and is the clearest demonstration of male dominance. Her perspective is radical, but valuable because it forces one to reexamine his or her view of pornography. She says that, â€Å"male power makes authoritative a way of seeing and treating women that when a man looks at a pornographic picture... the viewing is an act of male supremacy† (130). This form of expression dictates the way in which men view women as a class. The uneven distribution of power in this system makes pornography a form of discrimination. â€Å"Pornography causes attitudes and behaviors of violence and discrimination that define the treatment and status of half the population† (147). Not only women are subject to this form of oppression. â€Å"Pornography is theShow MoreRelatedPorn and Censorship15240 Words   |  61 Pagessupposed, and is a large and extremely profitable international industry. However, the term pornography is often used with an additional normative force that the first and second definitions leave out. When many people describe something (e.g., a book such as Tropic of Capricorn or a film such as Baise Moi)as pornographic, they seem to be doing more than simply dispassionately pointing to its sexually explicit content or the intentions of its producers-indeed, in these debates, the intentions

Managerial Leadership Development

Question: Discuss about the Managerial Leadership Development. Answer: Introduction Leadership is an essentiality in the present organisational structure. A good leader can take the company to new heights. A leader should have all the qualities and capabilities in him to lead the company and his team. With time his managerial capabilities and skills should also be enhanced. McDonalds is one of the top most fast food companies in the world. It employees more than sixty thousand employees and to lead such a huge number and achieving the set goals of the company is a big task. How a company is lead to the success is the job of a capable leader. McDonalds has a aim to be the best fast food restaurant in the world and a good managerial leader can change this objective into a reality and provide success to the company. Managerial Leadership Development in McDonalds An effective and successful leader is the one who does the correct things. It is a leaders responsibility to effectively lead its team, earn their support and communicate them the vision of an organisations goals and make them achieve that goal. He needs to have managerial traits also to manage everything that comes in his way (Rast, Hogg and Giessner, 2013). The managerial leaders of McDonalds have adopted a style known as Team-Building to manage their team and make the outlets a fun place to work. Managerial leaders of McDonalds advance the social responsibility and accountability to culture and include these activities in their business operations (Miller and Buxton, 2012). The managerial leadership model followed by McDonalds is Adairs model of leadership also known as action-centred leadership. The leadership functions used in Adair model of leadership are:- Accomplishing the attained task Team maintenance Individual need of members of the team should be met Adair model of leadership believes that the leader that emerges has the quality to adopt any style of leadership as required by the situation (De Hoogh, Greer and Den Hartog, 2015). Certain characteristics that a leader needs to perform his role efficiently are as follows: - The high level of integrity and authenticity should be there in a team leaders behaviour, and he should build a trusted relationship with all his team mates His commitment should be towards the team development Along with communication skills, he should be a good listener too He should share his assumptions, perceptions, and views with his team members Work independence to team member should be given but in a self-organised way At McDonalds the controlling span of a managerial leader is narrow. The controlling span means the number of working subordinates under the leader (Campbell and Richardson, 2007). If the controlling span is narrow, it gives certain advantages to the leader, and that is: Tight control on the working subordinates Close supervision of the daily operations brings co-ordination. Leader gets time to think and plan Delegation gets reduced due to narrow span of control Manager can provide more of his initiative towards the organisation Critically analysing, the managerial leadership style of McDonalds is autocratic and thus, the employees or the subordinates are not included in any decision making. Also, the suggestions of crew members or subordinates are not welcomed even, as most of them are new in the company. On a general basis, the young and inexperienced work in these restaurants during their holidays and therefore their ideas are not valued enough. Young staff is always motivated when paid well with transportation and meal. Hence, they work enthusiastically even in autocratic leadership (Lyons and Schneider, 2009). This leadership style puts pressure on the team members who are already much pressurised with a workload. Even with the disadvantage of autocratic leadership style workers of McDonalds find their workplace a fun place to be. They do not mind being ordered and directed by their managers. In fact, they prefer working under the autocratic style of leadership. One reason may be that under stress they dont have to be creative for their job and just have to follow orders. It may be said that at McDonalds leadership cannot be the actual reason for workers performance but the environment they are working in. And it is the managements work to provide the working staff right environment to work in (Bhatti et al., 2012). Autocratic leadership style can only dictate employees but cant motivate them, but, McDonalds fears to adopt another style of leadership as it may lead to a backlash from the team members who want the most independent style of working. McDonalds seek standardisation across the globe, and that cannot happen if every outlet will have a self-starter. So, Autocratic leadership style will be the best type of managerial leadership for McDonalds (Boudrias et al., 2009). Processes and Methods for Developing Leaders Leader development expands the persons ability to make him effective in leadership processes and roles. These roles and processes which are expanded help the leader in direction setting, maintaining commitment, and creating alignment in a team for doing a common job. All the programs and educational researches of an organisational leadership focus on developing skills, abilities, and individual knowledge in connection with individuals formal leadership roles. Leader development is actually an investment in human capital (Velsor, Ruderman, McCauley, 2010) The process of leader development includes three main purposes, and they are: Performance Improvement- the first step of this process is to access the organisations need for an effective leader and how well it is being met. The second step is to find out the gaps of the system that is in need of addressing. The third step is to find out the current leaders qualities and the performance areas where improvement is required (Clifton, 2015). Succession Management- the first step of succession management is to see that a sufficient number of potential candidates is getting ready for higher management positions. The second step includes the identification of the successor of leadership positions The third and the final step of succession management are to check out the diversified pool of high potentials. Organisational change- for organisational changes the first steps of the process are to identify the leader abilities and skills which is an important thing for accomplishing the business strategy. The second step is to consider the extent of the importance of organisational values and beliefs for accomplishing the strategy (Velsor, Ruderman, McCauley, 2010) The methods of developing a leader are given as follows:- Rotate through the different type of jobs- exposure gained from different level and divisions will give a leader experience of various roles of a company. The challenge with unfamiliar jobs- different and unfamiliar jobs will give experience and growth to a leader. Even failure will also teach a lesson. Create mentoring programs- pairing the employee with a senior employee is a common approach to any business but some time should be given to them to build trust for each other before providing a specific job to them (Fulmer, Stumpf and Bleak, 2009). Frequent feedback and coaching are necessary-proper evaluation and feedback of work done should be given so that an employee can work to improve his performance. Tap veterans advice- mentoring programs from veterans to the future leader, will help them to learn from the experience of the old worker. After following the processes of developing a leader and later involving the methods to develop a leader an organisation will have a potential leader for running the business strategies of the company successfully (Grossberg, 2013). Strategy Plan for Improving the Leadership Capabilities of McDonalds One is not born with leadership qualities they can be developed in the person if given proper guidance and training. Now-a-days being a leader is not enough one has to have the managerial qualities also to run an organization and lead a team and set an example for them (Muchiri et al., 2011). The McDonalds is one of the top most fast food restaurants in the world, but it aims at being the best fast food restaurant across the globe. To attain this goal the leader of the company should have leadership and managerial skills which will help the organisation to be the best fast food restaurant in the world (Zhang, 2014). The strategic plan for developing the capabilities of a leader of McDonalds includes few steps, and they are as follows: - The first step to improve the leadership capabilities is to add few characteristics that a future leader will require:- A leader should have perception and insight of an extraordinary level of the practicality of the work and themselves. Motivation level should be high to attain the changes that will occur to be a successful leader. successful leader needs to be emotionally strong so he could manage the anxiety of oneself and of others. Update his skills for identifying functional, analysing cultural and dysfunctional assumptions which enlarge the culture by enhancing the functional elements and strength. A leader should willingly involve others when a task is too complex for him to solve or to attain (Jeavons, 2011). The second step to increase the capabilities of the leader is adding some behavioural skills and they are: - He should learn to have effective verbal communication which includes listening It is important to manage stress and time Individual decisions need to be managed He should be able to recognise, define and solve problems A leader has to motivate and influence others and for that, he has to be motivated himself A leader should know the process of delegating A leader should be able to express his vision and goals to his team A leader should be self-aware Team building is an important skill for a leader A leader should be able to manage conflicts (Kelly, 2006). If a leader has all the capabilities mentioned above, he will be able to run the company in a better way than before. For attaining any goal a leader has to face few challenges that will stop him in his way. It is necessary to find those challenges and issues. The challenges a leader may face are:- It is not a one day process, developing a leader needs time and patience Its looks easy but very difficult to develop all the capabilities and skills in one person Organisational politics may act as a hindrance in following the strategy. Too many things to be accomplished in little time create headaches. Employees may not want the change of leadership style they may be happy with the way things are going Many a times leader is developed, but authorities are not given to the leader to use his capabilities and skills (Miller and Buxton, 2012). Recommendations The processes and methods of developing a leader do not cover every area that is required by the leader to be successful leader, therefore, few recommendations for managerial leadership development for an organisation are given here and they as follows: - It is recommended that a leader should listen better for understanding new ideas, and context, etc. this is a foundation step to great leadership. A leader should always work to improve his perception because one single mistake can threaten the decades of good work A leader should how to reinforce, the values and beliefs of the company because once these values and beliefs are reinforced then it will affect the daily operations of the company (Robinson, 2010). A leader should learn to say only that what he commits to doing. It will improve his integrity in the eyes of subordinates A leader should be a talent generator. He should be able to help his subordinates in a constant growth which will improve his companys outcome A leader should know how to deal with failure and improve him by learning a lesson from it. A deep connection with his team members will help the leader to have a constant growth A leader should be a judge of his own strengths which he should use for his favour. A leader should always welcome feedback and suggestions as it will help in improving the working of the company and of his. A great leader always provides an example for his subordinates thus; he should maintain his working and values to be respectful. A leader should have a clear vision towards the organisation and its working that he should be able to convey to his team (Robinson-Walker, 2007). Another leadership style other than autocratic can be tried that may help the company improve. These are the suggested recommendations for improving the capabilities of a leader of McDonalds. It will help the company to attain its goal of being the worlds best fast food restaurant. Conclusion A person is not born leader, but one can develop leadership skills by following the path of leader development. Every organisation in todays time needs an effective leader who can take care of everything his subordinates, managing, planning, publicising, customer relations and problem handling and solving. A person can develop as a leader by learning from the experiences that he gains from working and from others also he should incorporate the skills and capabilities that a successful leader needs to effectively manage and lead his team. There would be many challenges that will hinder the leaders progress in the development, but a leader should be able to overcome all the hindrances and develop as a successful managerial leader (Vestal, 2009). References Bhatti, N., Maitlo, G., Shaikh, N., Hashmi, M. and Shaikh, F. (2012). 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The effects of managerial transition training on organizational performance.Leadership Organization Development Journal, 33(5), pp.464-476. Muchiri, M., Cooksey, R., Di Milia, L. and Walumbwa, F. (2011). Gender and managerial level differences in perceptions of effective leadership.Leadership Organization Development Journal, 32(5), pp.462-492. Rast, D., Hogg, M. and Giessner, S. (2013). Self-uncertainty and Support for Autocratic Leadership.Self and Identity, 12(6), pp.635-649. Solansky, S. (2008). Leadership Style and Team Processes in Self-Managed Teams.Journal of Leadership Organizational Studies, 14(4), pp.332-341. Cheung, M. and Wong, C. (2011). Transformational leadership, leader support, and employee creativity.Leadership Organization Development Journal, 32(7), pp.656-672. Clifton, J. (2015). Leaders as ventriloquists. Leader identity and influencing the communicative construction of the organisation.Leadership. Fulmer, R., Stumpf, S. and Bleak, J. (2009). 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(2010).The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of leadership development ( 2010)(3rd ed., pp. Module 2 3). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.