Logical Fallacies Appeal to Authority

Fallacious appeals to authority take the general form of: 1. Person (or people) P makes claim X. Therefore, X is true. A fundamental reason why the Appeal to Authority can be a fallacy is that a proposition can be well supported only by facts and logically valid inferences. But by using an authority, the argument is relying upon testimony, not facts. A testimony is not an argument and it is not a fact. Now, such testimony might be strong or it might be weak the better the authority, the stronger the testimony will be and the worse the authority, the weaker the testimony will be. Thus, the way to differentiate between a legitimate and a fallacious appeal to authority is by evaluating the nature and strength of who is giving the testimony. Obviously, the best way to avoid making the fallacy is to avoid relying upon testimony as much as possible, and instead to rely upon original facts and data. But the truth of the matter is, this isnt always possible: we cant verify every single thing ourselves, and thus will always have to make use of the testimony of experts. Nevertheless, we must do so carefully and judiciously. The different types of the Appeal to Authority are: Legitimate Appeal to AuthorityAppeal to Unqualified AuthorityAppeal to Anonymous AuthorityAppeal to NumbersAppeal to Tradition  « Logical Fallacies | Legitimate Appeal to Authority  » Fallacy Name:Legitimate Appeal to Authority Alternative Names:None Category:Fallacy of Relevance Appeals to Authority Explanation:Not every reliance upon the testimony of authority figures is fallacious. We often rely upon such testimony, and we can do so for very good reason. Their talent, training and experience put them in a position to evaluate and report on evidence not readily available to everyone else. But we must keep in mind that for such an appeal to be justified, certain standards must be met: 1. The authority is an expert in the area of knowledge under consideration.2. The statement of the authority concerns his or her area of mastery.3. There is agreement among experts in the area of knowledge under consideration. Examples and Discussion:Let’s take a look at this example: 4. My doctor has said that medicine X will help my medical condition. Therefore, it will help me with my medical condition. Is this a legitimate appeal to authority, or a fallacious appeal to authority? First, the doctor has to be a medical doctor — a doctor of philosophy simply won’t do. Second, the doctor has to be treating you for a condition in which she has training — it isn’t enough if the doctor is a dermatologist who is prescribing you something for lung cancer. Finally, there has to be some general agreement among other experts in this field — if your doctor is the only one using this treatment, then the premise does not support the conclusion. Of course, we must keep in mind that even if these conditions are fully met, that does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. We are looking at inductive arguments here, and inductive arguments do not have guaranteed true conclusions, even when the premises are true. Instead, we have conclusions which are probably true. An important issue to consider here how and why anyone might be called an â€Å"expert† in some field. It isn’t enough to simply note that an appeal to authority is not a fallacy when that authority is an expert, because we need to have some way to tell when and how we have a legitimate an expert, or when we just have a fallacy. Let’s look at another example: 5. Channeling the spirits of the dead is real, because John Edward says he can do it and he is an expert. Now, is the above a legitimate appeal to authority, or a fallacious appeal to authority? The answer rests with whether or not it is true that we can call Edward an expert on channeling the spirits of the dead. Let’s do a comparison of the following two examples to see if that helps: 6. Professor Smith, shark expert: Great White Sharks are dangerous.7. John Edward: I can channel the spirit of your dead grandmother. When it comes to the authority of Professor Smith, it isn’t so hard to accept that he might be an authority on sharks. Why? Because the topic that he is an expert on involves empirical phenomena; and more importantly, it is possible for us to check on what he has claimed and verify it for ourselves. Such verification might be time consuming (and, when it comes to sharks, perhaps dangerous!), but that is usually why an appeal to authority is made in the first place. But when it comes to Edward, the same things cannot really be said. We simply do not have the usual tools and methods available to us to verify that he is, indeed, channeling someone’s dead grandmother and thereby getting information from her. Since we have no idea how his claim might be verified, even in theory, it simply isn’t possible to conclude that he is an expert on the subject. Now, that does not mean that there cannot be experts or authorities on the behavior of people who claim to channel the spirits of the dead, or experts on the social phenomena surrounding belief in channeling. This is because the claims made by these so-called experts can be verified and evaluated independently. By the same token, a person might be an expert on theological arguments and the history of theology, but to call them an expert on â€Å"god† would just be begging the question.  « Appeal to Authority — Overview | Appeal to Unqualified Authority  » Name:Appeal to Unqualified Authority Alternative Names:Argumentum ad Verecundiam Category:Fallacies of Relevance Appeals to Authority Explanation:An appeal to an Unqualified Authority looks much like a legitimate appeal to authority, but it violates at least one of the three necessary conditions for such an appeal to be legitimate: 1. The authority is an expert in the area of knowledge under consideration.2. The statement of the authority concerns his or her area of mastery.3. There is agreement among experts in the area of knowledge under consideration. People don’t always bother to think about whether these standards have been met. One reason is that most learn to defer to authorities and are reluctant to challenge them — this is the source of the Latin name for this fallacy, Argumentum ad Verecundiam, which means â€Å"argument appealing to our sense of modesty.† It was coined by John Locke to communicate how people are browbeaten by such arguments into accepting a proposition by the testimony of an authority because they are too modest to base a challenge on their own knowledge. Authorities can be challenged and the place to start is by questioning whether or not the above criteria have been met. To begin with, you can question whether or not the alleged authority really is an authority in this area of knowledge. It isn’t uncommon for people to set themselves up as authorities when they don’t merit such a label. For example, expertise in the fields of science and medicine require many years of study and practical work, but some who claim to have similar expertise by more obscure methods, like self-study. With that, they might claim the authority to challenge everyone else; but even if it turns out that their radical ideas are right, until that is proven, references to their testimony would be a fallacious. Examples and Discussion:An all-too-common example of this is movie stars testifying on important matters before Congress: 4. My favorite actor, who appeared in a movie about AIDS, has testified that the HIV virus doesn’t really cause AIDS and that there has been a cover-up. So, I think that AIDS must be caused by something other than HIV and the drug companies are hiding it so that they can make money from expensive anti-HIV drugs. Although there is little evidence to support the idea, perhaps it is true that AIDS is not caused by HIV; but that is really beside the point. The above argument bases the conclusion on the testimony on an actor, apparently because they appeared in a movie on the topic. This example might seem fanciful but many actors have testified before Congress based on the strength of their movie roles or pet charities. This doesn’t make them any more of an authority on such topics than you or I. They certainly can’t claim the medical and biological expertise to make authoritative testimony on the nature of AIDS. So just why is it that actors are invited to testify before Congress on topics other than acting or art? A second basis for challenge is whether or not the authority in question is making statements in his or her area of expertise. Sometimes, it is obvious when that is not happening. The above example with actors would be a good one - we might accept such a person as an expert on acting or how Hollywood works, but that doesn’t mean they know anything about medicine. There are many examples of this in advertising — indeed, just about every bit of advertising which uses some sort of celebrity is making a subtle (or not-so-subtle) appeal to unqualified authority. Just because someone is a famous baseball player doesn’t make them qualified to say which mortgage company is best, for instance. Often the difference can be much more subtle, with an authority in a related field making statements about an area of knowledge close to their own, but not quite close enough to warrant calling them an expert. So, for example, a dermatologist might be an expert when it comes to skin disease, but that doesn’t mean that they should be accepted as also being an expert when it comes to lung cancer. Finally, we can challenge an appeal to authority based on whether or not the testimony being offered is something which would find widespread agreement among other experts in that field. After all, if this is the only person in the entire field making such claims, the mere fact that they have expertise doesn’t warrant belief in it, especially considering the weight of contrary testimony. There are entire fields, in fact, where there is widespread disagreement on just about everything — psychiatry and economics are good examples of this. When an economist testifies to something, we can be almost guaranteed that we could find other economists to argue differently. Thus, we cannot rely upon them and should look directly at the evidence they are offering.  « Legitimate Appeal to Authority | Appeal to Anonymous Authority  » Fallacy Name:Appeal to Anonymous Authority Alternative Names:HearsayAppeal to Rumor Category:Fallacy of Weak Induction Appeals to Authority Explanation:This fallacy occurs whenever a person claims we should believe a proposition because it is also believed or claimed by some authority figure or figures — but in this case the authority is not named. Instead of identifying who this authority is, we get vague statements about â€Å"experts† or â€Å"scientists† who have â€Å"proven† something to be â€Å"true.† This is a fallacious Appeal to Authority because a valid authority is one who can be checked and whose statements can be verified. An anonymous authority however, cannot be checked and their statements cannot be verified. Examples and Discussion:We often see the Appeal to Anonymous Authority used in arguments where scientific matters are at question: 1. Scientists have found that eating cooked meat causes cancer.2. Most doctors agree that people in America take too many unnecessary drugs. Either of the above propositions may be true — but the support offered is completely inadequate to the task of supporting them. The testimony of â€Å"scientists† and â€Å"most doctors† is only relevant if we know who these people are and can independently evaluate the data which they have used. Sometimes, the Appeal to Anonymous Authority doesn’t even bother to rely upon genuine authorities like â€Å"scientists† or â€Å"doctors† — instead, all we hear about are unidentified â€Å"experts†: 3. According to government experts, the new nuclear storage facility poses no dangers.4. Environmental experts have demonstrated that global warming does not really exist. Here we don’t even know if the so-called â€Å"experts† are qualified authorities in the fields in question — and that is in addition to not knowing who they are so we can check the data and conclusions. For all we know, they have no genuine expertise and/or experience in these matters and have only been cited because they happen to agree with the speaker’s personal beliefs. Sometimes, the Appeal to Anonymous Authority is combined with an insult: 5. Every open-minded historian will agree that the Bible is relatively historically accurate and that Jesus existed. The authority of â€Å"historians† is used as a basis to argue that the listener should believe both that the Bible is historically accurate and that Jesus existed. Nothing is said about who the â€Å"historians† in question are — as a result, we cannot check for ourselves whether or not these â€Å"historians† have a good basis for their position. The insult comes in via the implication that those who believe the claims are â€Å"open-minded† and, therefore, those who don’t believe aren’t open-minded. No one wants to think of herself as being closed-minded, so an inclination to adopt the position described above is created. In addition, all historians who reject the above are automatically excluded from consideration because they are simply â€Å"closed-minded.† This fallacy can also be used in a personal way: 6. I know a chemist who is an expert in his field, and according to him evolution is nonsense. Who is this chemist? What field is he an expert in? Does his expertise have anything at all to do with a field which relates to evolution? Without that information, his opinion about evolution cannot be regarded as any reason to doubt evolutionary theory. Sometimes, we don’t even get the benefit of an appeal to â€Å"experts†: 7. They say that crime is increasing because of a lax court system. This proposition may be true, but who is this â€Å"they† who says so? We don’t know and we cannot evaluate the claim. This example of the Appeal to Anonymous Authority fallacy is particularly bad because it is so vague and vacuous. The Appeal to Anonymous Authority fallacy is sometimes called an Appeal to Rumor and the above example shows why. When â€Å"they† say things, that is just a rumor — it might be true, or it might not be. We cannot accept it as true, however, without evidence and the testimony of â€Å"they† cannot even begin to qualify. Prevention and Treatment:Avoiding this fallacy can be difficult because we all have heard things that have led to our beliefs, but when called upon to defend those beliefs we can’t find all of those reports to use as evidence. Thus, it is very easy and tempting to simply refer to â€Å"scientists† or â€Å"experts.† This isn’t necessarily a problem — provided, of course, that we are willing to make the effort to find that evidence when asked. We should not expect anyone to believe it just because we have cited the so-called authority of unknown and anonymous figures. We also shouldn’t jump on someone when we see them doing the same. Instead, we should remind them that an anonymous authority isn’t sufficient to get us to believe the claims in question and ask them to provide more substantive support.  « Logical Fallacies | Argument from Authority  »

Catharine MacKinnons Book Feminism Unmodified Essay

Catharine MacKinnons Book Feminism Unmodified Catharine MacKinnon, in her book Feminism Unmodified, takes a unique approach to the problem of gender inequality in America. She claims that pornography defines the way in which America’s patriarchal society perpetuates male dominance, and attacks traditional liberal methods that defend pornography on the basis of the first amendment’s right to free speech. According to MacKinnon, pornography is not an example of speech but rather an act. She proposes that this act discriminates against women as a class, and therefore violates their civil rights and should be outlawed. MacKinnon’s critics may think her argument is excessively radical, and contemporary society may not embrace the†¦show more content†¦Both practices work within the system, but neither practice has made substantial progress because they do not change private practice. MacKinnon opposes both approaches because they abide by male dominance. MacKinnon feels â€Å"There is a politics to (this dominant approach). Concealed is the substantive way in which man has become the measure for all things† (34). â€Å"Under the sameness (approach) women are measured according to their correspondence with man,† while â€Å"under the difference approach women are judged according to their distance to man.† She feels that male power perpetuates male dominance, because â€Å"women and men are equally different, but not equally powerful† (51). MacKinnon argues that pornography defines male treatment of women, and is the clearest demonstration of male dominance. Her perspective is radical, but valuable because it forces one to reexamine his or her view of pornography. She says that, â€Å"male power makes authoritative a way of seeing and treating women that when a man looks at a pornographic picture... the viewing is an act of male supremacy† (130). This form of expression dictates the way in which men view women as a class. The uneven distribution of power in this system makes pornography a form of discrimination. â€Å"Pornography causes attitudes and behaviors of violence and discrimination that define the treatment and status of half the population† (147). Not only women are subject to this form of oppression. â€Å"Pornography is theShow MoreRelatedPorn and Censorship15240 Words   |  61 Pagessupposed, and is a large and extremely profitable international industry. However, the term pornography is often used with an additional normative force that the first and second definitions leave out. When many people describe something (e.g., a book such as Tropic of Capricorn or a film such as Baise Moi)as pornographic, they seem to be doing more than simply dispassionately pointing to its sexually explicit content or the intentions of its producers-indeed, in these debates, the intentions

Managerial Leadership Development

Question: Discuss about the Managerial Leadership Development. Answer: Introduction Leadership is an essentiality in the present organisational structure. A good leader can take the company to new heights. A leader should have all the qualities and capabilities in him to lead the company and his team. With time his managerial capabilities and skills should also be enhanced. McDonalds is one of the top most fast food companies in the world. It employees more than sixty thousand employees and to lead such a huge number and achieving the set goals of the company is a big task. How a company is lead to the success is the job of a capable leader. McDonalds has a aim to be the best fast food restaurant in the world and a good managerial leader can change this objective into a reality and provide success to the company. Managerial Leadership Development in McDonalds An effective and successful leader is the one who does the correct things. It is a leaders responsibility to effectively lead its team, earn their support and communicate them the vision of an organisations goals and make them achieve that goal. He needs to have managerial traits also to manage everything that comes in his way (Rast, Hogg and Giessner, 2013). The managerial leaders of McDonalds have adopted a style known as Team-Building to manage their team and make the outlets a fun place to work. Managerial leaders of McDonalds advance the social responsibility and accountability to culture and include these activities in their business operations (Miller and Buxton, 2012). The managerial leadership model followed by McDonalds is Adairs model of leadership also known as action-centred leadership. The leadership functions used in Adair model of leadership are:- Accomplishing the attained task Team maintenance Individual need of members of the team should be met Adair model of leadership believes that the leader that emerges has the quality to adopt any style of leadership as required by the situation (De Hoogh, Greer and Den Hartog, 2015). Certain characteristics that a leader needs to perform his role efficiently are as follows: - The high level of integrity and authenticity should be there in a team leaders behaviour, and he should build a trusted relationship with all his team mates His commitment should be towards the team development Along with communication skills, he should be a good listener too He should share his assumptions, perceptions, and views with his team members Work independence to team member should be given but in a self-organised way At McDonalds the controlling span of a managerial leader is narrow. The controlling span means the number of working subordinates under the leader (Campbell and Richardson, 2007). If the controlling span is narrow, it gives certain advantages to the leader, and that is: Tight control on the working subordinates Close supervision of the daily operations brings co-ordination. Leader gets time to think and plan Delegation gets reduced due to narrow span of control Manager can provide more of his initiative towards the organisation Critically analysing, the managerial leadership style of McDonalds is autocratic and thus, the employees or the subordinates are not included in any decision making. Also, the suggestions of crew members or subordinates are not welcomed even, as most of them are new in the company. On a general basis, the young and inexperienced work in these restaurants during their holidays and therefore their ideas are not valued enough. Young staff is always motivated when paid well with transportation and meal. Hence, they work enthusiastically even in autocratic leadership (Lyons and Schneider, 2009). This leadership style puts pressure on the team members who are already much pressurised with a workload. Even with the disadvantage of autocratic leadership style workers of McDonalds find their workplace a fun place to be. They do not mind being ordered and directed by their managers. In fact, they prefer working under the autocratic style of leadership. One reason may be that under stress they dont have to be creative for their job and just have to follow orders. It may be said that at McDonalds leadership cannot be the actual reason for workers performance but the environment they are working in. And it is the managements work to provide the working staff right environment to work in (Bhatti et al., 2012). Autocratic leadership style can only dictate employees but cant motivate them, but, McDonalds fears to adopt another style of leadership as it may lead to a backlash from the team members who want the most independent style of working. McDonalds seek standardisation across the globe, and that cannot happen if every outlet will have a self-starter. So, Autocratic leadership style will be the best type of managerial leadership for McDonalds (Boudrias et al., 2009). Processes and Methods for Developing Leaders Leader development expands the persons ability to make him effective in leadership processes and roles. These roles and processes which are expanded help the leader in direction setting, maintaining commitment, and creating alignment in a team for doing a common job. All the programs and educational researches of an organisational leadership focus on developing skills, abilities, and individual knowledge in connection with individuals formal leadership roles. Leader development is actually an investment in human capital (Velsor, Ruderman, McCauley, 2010) The process of leader development includes three main purposes, and they are: Performance Improvement- the first step of this process is to access the organisations need for an effective leader and how well it is being met. The second step is to find out the gaps of the system that is in need of addressing. The third step is to find out the current leaders qualities and the performance areas where improvement is required (Clifton, 2015). Succession Management- the first step of succession management is to see that a sufficient number of potential candidates is getting ready for higher management positions. The second step includes the identification of the successor of leadership positions The third and the final step of succession management are to check out the diversified pool of high potentials. Organisational change- for organisational changes the first steps of the process are to identify the leader abilities and skills which is an important thing for accomplishing the business strategy. The second step is to consider the extent of the importance of organisational values and beliefs for accomplishing the strategy (Velsor, Ruderman, McCauley, 2010) The methods of developing a leader are given as follows:- Rotate through the different type of jobs- exposure gained from different level and divisions will give a leader experience of various roles of a company. The challenge with unfamiliar jobs- different and unfamiliar jobs will give experience and growth to a leader. Even failure will also teach a lesson. Create mentoring programs- pairing the employee with a senior employee is a common approach to any business but some time should be given to them to build trust for each other before providing a specific job to them (Fulmer, Stumpf and Bleak, 2009). Frequent feedback and coaching are necessary-proper evaluation and feedback of work done should be given so that an employee can work to improve his performance. Tap veterans advice- mentoring programs from veterans to the future leader, will help them to learn from the experience of the old worker. After following the processes of developing a leader and later involving the methods to develop a leader an organisation will have a potential leader for running the business strategies of the company successfully (Grossberg, 2013). Strategy Plan for Improving the Leadership Capabilities of McDonalds One is not born with leadership qualities they can be developed in the person if given proper guidance and training. Now-a-days being a leader is not enough one has to have the managerial qualities also to run an organization and lead a team and set an example for them (Muchiri et al., 2011). The McDonalds is one of the top most fast food restaurants in the world, but it aims at being the best fast food restaurant across the globe. To attain this goal the leader of the company should have leadership and managerial skills which will help the organisation to be the best fast food restaurant in the world (Zhang, 2014). The strategic plan for developing the capabilities of a leader of McDonalds includes few steps, and they are as follows: - The first step to improve the leadership capabilities is to add few characteristics that a future leader will require:- A leader should have perception and insight of an extraordinary level of the practicality of the work and themselves. Motivation level should be high to attain the changes that will occur to be a successful leader. successful leader needs to be emotionally strong so he could manage the anxiety of oneself and of others. Update his skills for identifying functional, analysing cultural and dysfunctional assumptions which enlarge the culture by enhancing the functional elements and strength. A leader should willingly involve others when a task is too complex for him to solve or to attain (Jeavons, 2011). The second step to increase the capabilities of the leader is adding some behavioural skills and they are: - He should learn to have effective verbal communication which includes listening It is important to manage stress and time Individual decisions need to be managed He should be able to recognise, define and solve problems A leader has to motivate and influence others and for that, he has to be motivated himself A leader should know the process of delegating A leader should be able to express his vision and goals to his team A leader should be self-aware Team building is an important skill for a leader A leader should be able to manage conflicts (Kelly, 2006). If a leader has all the capabilities mentioned above, he will be able to run the company in a better way than before. For attaining any goal a leader has to face few challenges that will stop him in his way. It is necessary to find those challenges and issues. The challenges a leader may face are:- It is not a one day process, developing a leader needs time and patience Its looks easy but very difficult to develop all the capabilities and skills in one person Organisational politics may act as a hindrance in following the strategy. Too many things to be accomplished in little time create headaches. Employees may not want the change of leadership style they may be happy with the way things are going Many a times leader is developed, but authorities are not given to the leader to use his capabilities and skills (Miller and Buxton, 2012). Recommendations The processes and methods of developing a leader do not cover every area that is required by the leader to be successful leader, therefore, few recommendations for managerial leadership development for an organisation are given here and they as follows: - It is recommended that a leader should listen better for understanding new ideas, and context, etc. this is a foundation step to great leadership. A leader should always work to improve his perception because one single mistake can threaten the decades of good work A leader should how to reinforce, the values and beliefs of the company because once these values and beliefs are reinforced then it will affect the daily operations of the company (Robinson, 2010). A leader should learn to say only that what he commits to doing. It will improve his integrity in the eyes of subordinates A leader should be a talent generator. He should be able to help his subordinates in a constant growth which will improve his companys outcome A leader should know how to deal with failure and improve him by learning a lesson from it. A deep connection with his team members will help the leader to have a constant growth A leader should be a judge of his own strengths which he should use for his favour. A leader should always welcome feedback and suggestions as it will help in improving the working of the company and of his. A great leader always provides an example for his subordinates thus; he should maintain his working and values to be respectful. A leader should have a clear vision towards the organisation and its working that he should be able to convey to his team (Robinson-Walker, 2007). Another leadership style other than autocratic can be tried that may help the company improve. These are the suggested recommendations for improving the capabilities of a leader of McDonalds. It will help the company to attain its goal of being the worlds best fast food restaurant. Conclusion A person is not born leader, but one can develop leadership skills by following the path of leader development. Every organisation in todays time needs an effective leader who can take care of everything his subordinates, managing, planning, publicising, customer relations and problem handling and solving. A person can develop as a leader by learning from the experiences that he gains from working and from others also he should incorporate the skills and capabilities that a successful leader needs to effectively manage and lead his team. There would be many challenges that will hinder the leaders progress in the development, but a leader should be able to overcome all the hindrances and develop as a successful managerial leader (Vestal, 2009). References Bhatti, N., Maitlo, G., Shaikh, N., Hashmi, M. and Shaikh, F. (2012). 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(2010).The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of leadership development ( 2010)(3rd ed., pp. Module 2 3). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.